A postal code (known in various countries as a post code, postcode, or ZIP code) is a series of letters and/or digits appended to a postal address for the purpose of sorting mail. Once postal codes were introduced, other applications became possible.

In February 2005, 117 of the 190 member countries of the Universal Postal Union had postal code systems. Countries that do not have national systems include Ireland and Panama. Although Hong Kong and Macau are now Special Administrative Regions of China, each maintains its own long-established postal system, which does not utilize postal codes for domestic mail, and no postal codes are assigned to Hong Kong and Macau. Mail between Hong Kong, Macau and mainland China is treated as international.

Although postal codes are usually assigned to geographical areas, special codes are sometimes assigned to individual addresses or to institutions that receive large volumes of mail, such as government agencies and large commercial companies. One example is the French CEDEX system.

Terms

There are a number of colloquial terms for ''postal code''.

; ''postal code'': The general term is used directly in Canada. ; ''postcode'': This portmanteau is popular in many English-speaking countries. ; ''ZIP code'': The standard term in the United States and the Philippines; ''ZIP'' is an acronym for ''Zone Improvement Plan''. ; ''PIN code'' / ''pincode'': The standard term in India; ''PIN'' is an acronym for ''Postal Index Number''.

History

Postal codes were first introduced in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in December 1932, but the system was abandoned in 1939. The next country to introduce postal codes was Germany in 1941, followed by Argentina in 1958, the United Kingdom in 1959, the United States in 1963 and Switzerland in 1964.

Presentation

Character sets

The characters used in postal codes are

The arabic numerals "0" to "9"

Letters of the Basic Latin alphabet,

space " ",

hyphen "-"

Reserved characters

Postal codes in the Netherlands originally did not use the letters 'F', 'I', 'O', 'Q', 'U' and 'Y' for technical reasons. But as almost all existing combinations are now used, these letters were allowed for new locations starting 2005. The letter combinations SS, SD and SA are not used for historical reasons.

Postal codes in Canada do not include the letters D, F, I, O, Q, or U, as the OCR equipment used in automated sorting could easily confuse them with other letters and digits. The letters W and Z are used, but are not currently used as the first letter.

Alphanumeric postal codes

Most of the postal code systems are numeric, only a few are alphanumeric (i.e. use both letters and digits). Alphanumeric systems can, given the same number of digits, encode many more locations. They are often more precise, as is the case in the United Kingdom or in the Netherlands, where a postal code corresponds to a street or even a building, meaning the post code and the number of the home/business is all that is needed for accurate delivery. However, there is no ''a priori'' reason why numeric postal codes cannot be equally precise, as illustrated by 9- and 11-digit codes in the United States. The independent nations using alphanumeric postal code systems are:

Argentina (see table)

Brunei (see table)

Canada (see table)

Jamaica (see postal codes in Jamaica)(suspended in 2007 )

Malta (see table)

Netherlands (see table)

United Kingdom (see table)

Venezuela (look up at http://www.ipostel.gob.ve/nlinea/codigo_postal.php).

Country code prefixes

Usage of ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes was recommended to be used starting in 1994, but they have not become widely used. The European Committee for Standardization recommends use of ISO Alpha-2 codes for international postcodes and a UPU guide on international addressing states that "administrations may recommend" the use of ISO Alpha-2 codes.

Andorra, Ecuador, Latvia, Moldova, Slovenia use the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 as prefix in their postal codes.

In some countries (such as those of continental Europe, where a postcode format of four or five numeric digits is commonly used) the numeric postal code is sometimes prefixed with a country code to avoid confusion when sending international mail to or from that country. Recommendations by official bodies responsible for postal communications are confusing regarding this practice. For many years, licence plate codes — for instance "D-" for Germany or "F-" for France — were used, although this was not accepted by the Universal Postal Union (UPU).

Placement of the code

Postal services have their own formats and placement rules for postal codes. In most English-speaking countries, the postal code forms the last item of the address, following the city or town name, whereas in most continental European countries it precedes the name of the city or town.

When it follows the city it may be on the same line or on a new line.

In Japan, China, Korea and the Russian Federation, it is written more to the beginning of an address.

Geographic coverage

Postal codes are usually assigned to geographical areas. Sometimes codes are assigned to individual addresses or to institutions that receive large volumes of mail, e.g. government agencies or large commercial companies. One example is the French Cedex system.

Postal zone numbers

Before postal codes as described here were used, large cities were often divided into ''postal zones'' or ''postal districts'', usually numbered from 1 upwards within each city. The newer postal code systems often incorporate the old zone numbers, as with London postal district numbers, for example. Ireland still uses postal district numbers in Dublin. In New Zealand, Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch were divided into postal zones, but these fell into disuse, and have now become redundant as a result of a new postcode system being introduced.

Codes defined along administrative borders

Some postal code system, like the one of Ecuador and Costa Rica show an exact agreement with the hierarchy of the administrative country subdivisions.

Format of 6 digit numeric (8 digit alphanumeric) postal codes in Ecuador, introduced in December 2007: ECAABBCC : EC - ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code : AA - one of the 24 provinces of Ecuador (24 of 100 possible codes used = 24%) : BB - one of the 226 cantons of Ecuador (for AABB 226 of 10000 codes used , i.e. 2.26%. Three cantons are not in any province) : CC - one of the parishes of Ecuador.

Format of 5 digit numeric Postal codes in Costa Rica, introduced in 2007: ABBCC : A - one of the 7 provinces of Costa Rica (7 of 10 used, i.e. 70%) : BB - one of the 81 cantons of Costa Rica (81 of 1000 used, i.e. 8.1%) : CC - one of the districts of Costa Rica. In Costa Rica these codes are also used by the National Institute for Statistics and Census (INSEC).

The first two digits of the postal codes in Turkey correspond to the provinces and each province has assigned only one number. They are the same for them as in ISO 3166-2:TR.

The first two digits of the postal codes in Vietnam indicate a province. Some provinces have one, other have several two digit numbers assigned. The numbers differ from the number used in ISO 3166-2:VN.

Codes defined close to administrative borders

In France the numeric code for the departments is used in the first digits of the postal code, except for the two departments in Corsica that have codes 2A and 2B and use 20 as postal code. Furthermore the codes are only the codes for the department in charge of delivery of the post, so it can be that a location in one department has a postal code starting with the number of a neighbouring department.

Codes defined indirectly to administrative borders

The first digit of the postal codes in the United States defines an area including several states. From the first three digits (with some exceptions), one can deduce the state.

Codes defined independently from administrative borders

The first two digits of the postal codes in Germany define areas independent from administrative regions. The coding space of the first digit is fully used (0-9); that of the first two combined is utilized to 89%, i.e., there are 89 postal zones defined. Zone 11 is non-geographic.

The UK post designed the postal codes in the United Kingdom mostly for efficient distribution. Nevertheless, with time, people associated codes with certain areas, leading certain people wanting or not wanting to have a certain code. See also postcode lottery.

Precision

Netherlands

Postal codes in the Netherlands are alphanumeric, consisting of four digits followed by a space and two letters (NNNN AA). Adding the house number to the postcode will identify the address, making the street name and town name redundant. For example: 2597 GV 75 will direct a postal delivery to the International School of The Hague.

USA

Other countries allow equally precise coding. For example, in the United States, the delivery point is typically derived from the last two digits of the house number and thus (at least theoretically) allows an unambiguous identification of every address in the country.

UK

For domestic properties the postcode refers to up to 100 properties in contiguous proximity (e.g. a short section of a populous road, or a series of less populous neighbouring roads). The postcode plus the number or name of a property is not always unique, particularly in rural areas. For example GL20 8NX/1 might refer to either 1 Frampton Cottages or 1 Frampton Farm Cottages, roughly half a kilometre apart. The postcode plus the ''first line of the address'', however, is always unique (except where sub-properties occurs).

Structure is alphanumeric with the following seven valid permutations, as defined by BS 7666:

A9 9AA A9A 9AA A99 9AA A99A 9AA AA9 9AA AA9A 9AA AA99 9AA

There are always two halves: the separation between outward and inward postcodes is indicated by one space.

The outward postcode covers a unique area and has two parts which may in total be two three or four characters in length. A postcode area of one or two letters, followed by one or two numbers, followed in some parts of London by a letter.

The outward postcode and the leading numeric of the inward postcode in combination forms a postal sector, and this usually corresponds to a couple of thousand properties.

Larger businesses and isolated properties such as farms may have a unique postcode. Extremely large organisations such as larger government offices or bank headquarters may have multiple postcodes for different departments.

There are about 100 postcode areas ranging widely in size from BT which covers the whole of Northern Ireland to ZE for Shetland. Postcode areas may also cross national boundaries, such as SY which covers a large, predominantly rural area from Shrewsbury and Ludlow in Shropshire, England, through the eastern Welsh town of Welshpool, Powys in Wales to the seaside town of Aberystwyth, Ceredigion on Wales' west coast.

States and overseas territories sharing a postal code system

Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man are part of the UK postcode system. They use the scheme AAN NAA, in which the first two letters are a unique code (GY, JE and IM respectively).

Seven British overseas territories use nine postal codes: three for Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, and one apiece for the others. Note that the former has two ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes, and the British Antarctic Territory has none, so the number of ISO codes is seven.

Ascension Island: ASCN 1ZZ, ISO code: AC

British Antarctic Territory: BIQQ 1ZZ

British Indian Ocean Territory: BBND 1ZZ, ISO code: IO

Falkland Islands: FIQQ 1ZZ, ISO code: FK

Pitcairn Islands: PCRN 1ZZ, ISO code: PN

Saint Helena STHL 1ZZ, ISO code: SH

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands: SIQQ 1ZZ, ISO code: GS

Tristan da Cunha: TDCU 1ZZ, ISO code: included under SH

Turks and Caicos Islands: TKCA 1ZZ, ISO code: TC

Two other British areas have their own systems, and use the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 prefix:

Cayman Islands: KYN-NNNN*

British Virgin Islands: VGNNNN.

French overseas territories use the five-digit French postal code system, each code starting with the three letter department identifier. Monaco also uses the French system.

Italy, San Marino and Vatican City use one system. Liechtenstein and Switzerland use one system. Slovakia and the Czech Republic base their systems on the codes of Czechoslovakia, their ranges not overlapping.

Non-geographic codes

In Finland the special postal code 99999 is for Korvatunturi, the place where Santa Claus (Joulupukki in Finnish) is said to live.

In Greenland the postal code 2412 is for Julemanden (Santa Claus)

In Canada the amount of mail sent to Santa Claus increased every Christmas, up to the point that Canada Post decided to start an official Santa Claus letter-response program in 1983. Approximately one million letters come in to Santa Claus each Christmas, including from outside of Canada, and all of them are answered in the same languages in which they are written. Canada Post introduced a special address for mail to Santa Claus, complete with its own postal code:

:SANTA CLAUS :NORTH POLE  H0H 0H0

In the United Kingdom, the non-conforming postal code GIR 0AA was used for the National Girobank until its closure in 2003.

Formats

A = letter

N = number

CC = ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code

!Country	!Introduced	ISO 3166-1 alpha-2>ISO	!Format	!Note
Afghanistan			- no codes -
			NNNNN	With Finland, first two numbers are 22.
			NNNN
			NNNNN	First two as in ISO 3166-2:DZ
	2004		CCNNN
			- no codes -
	1974, modified 1999		1974-1998 NNNN; From 1999 ANNNNAAA	Codigo Postal Argentino (CPA), where A is the province code as in ISO 3166-2:AR
	1963-07-01		NNNNN	U.S. ZIP codes
	2006-04-01		NNNN
Ascension island			AAAANAA one code: ASCN 1ZZ	UK territory, but not UK postcode
	1967		NNNN
	1966		NNNN
			CCNNNN
			NNNN
		BB	CCNNNNN
		BY	NNNNNN
		BE	NNNN	First number indicates the province. (not completely correct)
		BZ	- no codes -
		BJ	- no codes -
			NNNNN
	1972	BR	NNNNN	Código de Endereçamento Postal (CEP)
	1992	BR	NNNNNNNN (NNNNN-NNN)
British Indian Ocean Territory			AAAANAA one code: BIQQ 1ZZ	UK territory, but not UK postcode
		VG	CCNNNN
			AANNNN
	1975		NNNN
			NNNNN
	1971–1975		ANA NAN	The system was gradually introduced starting in April 1971 in Ottawa
		CV	NNNN	The first digit indicates the island.
			NNNNNNN (NNN-NNNN)
			NNNNNN
			NNNNNN
	2007-03	CR	NNNNN	First codes the provinces, next two the canton, last two the district.
		HR	NNNNN
	1994-10-01	CY	NNNN
	1973	CZ	NNNNN (NNN NN)	with Slovak Republic, Poštovní směrovací číslo (PSČ) - postal routing number
	1967-09-20	DK	NNNN
	2007-12	EC	CCNNNNNN
		EG	NNNNN
		EE	NNNNN
Falkland Islands			AAAANAA one code: FIQQ 1ZZ	UK territory, but not UK postcode
	1971	FI	NNNNN
	1972	FR	NNNNN	First mostly as in ISO 3166-2:FR.
			NNNN
	1941-07-25	--	NN	Postleitzahl (PLZ)
	1962	DE	NNNN	Postleitzahl (PLZ)
	1993	DE	NNNNN	Postleitzahl (PLZ)
	1983	GR	NNNNN
	1963-07-01		NNNNN	U.S. ZIP codes
	1993		AAN NAA	UK-format postcode (first two letters are always GY not GG)
Hong Kong			- no codes -
		HU	NNNN
		IS	NNN
	1972-08-15	IN	NNNNNN,	NNN NNN	Postal Index Number (PIN)
		ID	NNNNN	Kode Pos
			NNNNN-NNNNN	کد پستی
	2004		NNNNN
			- no codes -	Alphanumeric system planned, however no known rollout date
	1993		CCN NAA, CCNN NAA	UK-format postcode
		IL	NNNNN
	1967		NNNNN	Codice di Avviamento Postale (CAP)
	1968	JP	NNNNNNN (NNN-NNNN)
	1994		CCN NAA	UK-format postcode
			NNNNNN	Reference:
		LV	CC-NNNN
	1964	LI	NNNN	With Switzerland, ordered from west to east
		LT	NNNNN	References: http://www.post.lt/en/?id=421 http://www.post.lt/en/?id=271
		LU	NNNN	References: http://www.upu.int/post_code/en/countries/LUX.pdf
Macau		MO	- no codes -
		MY	NNNNN
		MT	AAANNNN (AAA NNNN)	Kodiċi Postali
	1963-07-01		NNNNN	U.S. ZIP codes
		MX	NNNNN
	1963-07-01		NNNNN	U.S. ZIP codes
		MD	CCNNNN (CC-NNNN)
	1972	MC	980NN
		ME	NNNNN
	1997-01-01	MA	NNNNN
	1977	NL	NNNN AA
	2008-06	NZ	NNNN	Postcode
		NI	NNNNNN
	1963-07-01		NNNNN	U.S. ZIP codes
	1968-03-18	NO	NNNN	From south to north
	1963-07-01		NNNNN	U.S. ZIP codes
			NNNNNN
		PK	NNNNNN
		PY	NNNN
		PE	Alphanumeric	New National Postal Code system to be implemented in February 2011
		PH	NNNN
Pitcairn Islands			AAAANAA one code: PCRN 1ZZ	UK territory, but not UK postcode
	1973	PL	NNNNN (NN-NNN)
	1976		NNNN
	1994	PT	NNNN-NNN (NNNN NNN)
	1963-07-01		NNNNN	U.S. ZIP codes
	2003-05-01	RO	NNNNNN
	1971		NNNNNN
			NNNNN	With Italy, uses a five-digit numeric CAP of Emilia Romagna
	2005-01-01		NNNNN	Poshtanski adresni kod (PAK)
	1950		NN
	1979		NNNN
	1995		NNNNNN
	1973	SK	NNNNN (NNN NN)	with Czech Republic from west to east, Poštové smerovacie číslo (PSČ) - postal routing number
			CCNNNN (CC-NNNN)
	1975		NNNN
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands			AAAANAA one code: SIQQ 1ZZ	UK territory, but not UK postcode
			NNNNNN (NNN-NNN)
	1976		NNNNN	First two indicate the province, range 01-52
			NNNNN	Reference: http://mohanjith.net/ZIPLook/
	1968-05-12		NNNNN (NNN NN)
	1964		NNNN	With Liechtenstein, ordered from west to east
			NNNNN	includes some territories administrated by Japan
	1982-02-25	TH	NNNNN	The first two specify the province, numbers as in ISO 3166-2:TH, the third and fourth digits specify a district (amphoe)
Tunisia			NNNN
Turks and Caicos Islands			AAAANAA one code: TKCA 1ZZ	UK territory, but not UK postcode
			NNNNN	The first two specify the province as in ISO 3166-2:TR
			NNNNN
	1959–1974		A(A)N(A/N)NAA (A[A]N[A/N] NAA)	Postcode, letters before the first number identify a town or district. AN NAA, ANN NAA, ANA NAA, AAN NAA, AANN NAA, AANA NAA. Complex as incorporates early non-systematic postal districts.
	1963-07-01		NNNNN (optionally NNNNN-NNNN or NNNNN-NNNNNN)	ZIP code
	1963-07-01		NNNNN	U.S. ZIP codes
			NNNNN	with Italy, uses a five-digit numeric CAP of Rome
			NNNNNN

Non-postal uses and economic aspects

While postal codes were introduced to expedite the delivery of mail, they are very useful tools for several other purposes, particularly in countries where codes are very fine-grained and identify just a few addresses. Among uses are: Finding the nearest branch of an organisation to a given address. A computer program uses the postal codes of the target address and the branches to list the closest branches in order of distance as the crow flies (or, if used in conjunction with streetmap software, road distance). This can be used by companies to inform potential customers where to go, by job centres to find jobs for job-seekers, to alert people of town planning applications in their area, and a great many other applications.

Fine-grained postal codes can be used with satellite navigation systems to navigate to an address by street number and postcode.

Geographical sales territories for representatives in the pharmaceutical industry are allocated based on a workload index that is based upon postcode.

Availability

The availability of postal code information has significant economic advantages. In some countries, the postal authorities charge for access to the code database. , the United Kingdom Government is consulting on whether to waive licensing fees for some geographical data sets (to be determined) related to UK postcodes.

See also

List of postal codes

:Category:Lists of postal codes

Mailing address format by country

References

External links

Universal Postal Union

*Addressing

*Postcodes

Reference on World Postcodes

countries postal codes Formats and list

Category:Postal system

als:Postleitzahl ar:رمز بريدي an:Codigo postal ast:Códigu postal az:Poçt indeksi bn:পোস্ট কোড be:Паштовы індэкс be-x-old:Паштовы індэкс bar:Postleitzoi bs:Poštanski broj br:Kod-post bg:Пощенски код ca:Codi postal cs:Poštovní směrovací číslo cy:Côd post da:Postnummer de:Postleitzahl el:Ταχυδρομικός κώδικας es:Código postal eo:Poŝtkodo ext:Coigu postal eu:Posta-kode fa:کد پستی fr:Code postal fy:Postkoade fur:CAP gl:Código postal ko:우편번호 hy:Փոստային ինդեքս hr:Poštanski broj id:Kodepos is:Póstnúmer it:Codice postale he:מיקוד (דואר) jv:Kodhe pos la:Numerus cursualis lv:Pasta indekss lb:Postcode lt:Pašto kodas lij:Codiçe postâ hu:Irányítószám mk:Поштенски број ms:Poskod nl:Postcode nds-nl:Postcode ja:郵便番号 no:Postnummer nn:Postnummer oc:Còde postal nds:Postleddtall pl:Kod pocztowy pt:Código postal ro:Cod poștal ru:Почтовый индекс sq:Kodi postar scn:CAP simple:Postal code sk:Poštové smerovacie číslo sl:Poštna številka v Sloveniji sr:Поштански код sh:Poštanski broj fi:Postinumero sv:Postnummer ta:அஞ்சல் குறியீடுகள் th:รหัสไปรษณีย์ tg:Нишонаи почта tr:Posta kodu uk:Поштовий індекс ur:رمزِ ڈاک vec:Codice postale vi:Mã bưu chính wa:Limero del posse vls:Postnummer wuu:邮政编码 zh:邮政编码

Coordinates	32°13′0″N76°19′0″N
name	Track and field
nickname	Track
team	Yes
mgender	Yes
category	sports/running
olympic	Yes }}

Track and field (also known as track and field sports, track and field athletics, or commonly just track) is a sport comprising various competitive athletic contests based around the activities of running, jumping and throwing. The name of the sport derives from the venue for the competitions: a stadium which features an oval running track surrounding a grassy area. The throwing and jumping events generally take place within the central enclosed area.

Track and field is one of the sports which (along with road running, cross-country running and race walking) makes up the umbrella sport of athletics. It is under the banner of athletics that the two most prestigious international track and field competitions are held: the athletics competition at the Olympic Games and the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The International Association of Athletics Federations is the international governing body for track and field.

Track and field events are generally individual sports with athletes challenging each other to decide a single victor. The racing events are won by the athlete with the fastest time, while the jumping and throwing events are won by the athlete who has achieved the greatest distance or height in the contest. The running events are categorised as sprints, middle and long-distance events, relays, and hurdling. Regular jumping events include long jump, triple jump, high jump and pole vault, while the most common throwing events are shot put, javelin, discus and hammer. There are also "combined events", such as heptathlon and decathlon, in which athletes compete in a number of the above events.

Records are kept of the best performances in specific events, at world and national levels, right down to a personal level. However, if athletes are deemed to have violated the event's rules or regulations, they are disqualified from the competition and their marks are erased. The athletes wear small clothes that make running easier; men wear shorts and sleeveless shirts while women wear swim-like suits.

History

The sport of track and field has its roots in human prehistory. Track and field-style events are among the oldest of all sporting competitions, as running, jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical expression. The first recorded examples of organized track and field events at a sports festival are the Ancient Olympic Games. At the first Games in 776 BC in Olympia, Greece, only one event was contested: the stadion footrace. The scope of the Games expanded in later years to include further running competitions, but the introduction of the Ancient Olympic pentathlon marked a step towards track and field as it is recognised today – it comprised a five-event competition of the long jump, javelin throw, discus throw, the stadion foot race, and wrestling.

Track and field events were also present at the Panhellenic Games in Greece around this period, and they spread to Rome in Italy around 200 BC. After the period of Classical antiquity (in which the sport was largely Greco-Roman influenced) new track and field events began developing in parts of Northern Europe in the Middle Ages. The stone put and weight throw competitions popular among Celtic societies in Ireland and Scotland were precursors to the modern shot put and hammer throw events. One of the last track and field events to develop was the pole vault, which stemmed from competitions such as the Fierljeppen contests in the Northern European Lowlands in the 18th century.

Discrete modern track and field competitions, separate from general sporting festivals, were first recorded in the late 19th century. These were typically organised by educational institutions, military organisations and sports clubs as competitions between rival establishments. Competitive hurdling first came into being around this point, with the advent of the steeplechase in England around 1850. The Amateur Athletic Association was established in England in 1880 as the first national body for the sport of athletics and, under this grouping, track and field became the focus of the annual AAA Championships. The United States also began holding an annual national competition – the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships – first held in 1876 by the New York Athletic Club. Following the establishment of general sports governing bodies for the United States (the Amateur Athletic Union in 1888) and France (the Union des sociétés françaises de sports athlétiques in 1889), track and field events began to be promoted and codified.

The establishment of the modern Olympic Games at the end of the 19th century marked a new high for track and field. The Olympic athletics programme, comprising track and field events plus a marathon race, contained many of the foremost sporting competitions of the 1896 Summer Olympics. The Olympics also consolidated the use of metric measurements in international track and field events, both for race distances and for measuring jumps and throws. The Olympic athletics programme greatly expanded over the next decades, and track and field contests remained among the Games' most prominent. The Olympics was the elite competition for track and field, and only amateur sportsmen could compete. Track and field would continue to be a largely amateur sport, as this rule was strictly enforced: Jim Thorpe was stripped of his track and field medals from the 1912 Olympics after it was revealed that he had played baseball professionally.

That same year, the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was established, becoming the international governing body for track and field, and it enshrined amateurism as one of its founding principles for the sport. The National Collegiate Athletic Association held their first Men's Outdoor Track and Field Championship in 1921, making it one of the most prestigious competitions for students, and this was soon followed by the introduction of track and field at the inaugural World Student Games in 1923. The first continental track and field competition was the 1919 South American Championships, which was followed by the European Athletics Championships in 1934. Up until the early 1920s, track and field had been almost exclusively a male-only pursuit. The women's sports movement led to the introduction of five track and field events for women in the athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics and more women's events were gradually introduced as years progressed (although it was only towards the end of the century that the men's and women's programmes approached parity of events). Furthermore, major track and field competitions for disabled athletes were first introduced at the 1960 Summer Paralympics.

With the rise of numerous regional championships, as well as the growth in Olympic-style multi-sport events (such as the Commonwealth Games and the Pan-American Games), competitions between international track and field athletes became widespread. From the 1960s onwards, the sport gained more exposure and commercial appeal through television coverage and the increasing wealth of nations. After over half a century of amateurism, the amateur status of the sport began to be displaced by growing professionalism in the late 1970s. As a result, the Amateur Athletic Union was dissolved in the United States and it was replaced with a non-amateur body solely focused on the sport of athletics: The Athletics Congress (later USA Track and Field). The IAAF soon followed suit in 1982, abandoning amateurism, and later removing all references to it from its name by rebranding itself as the International Association of Athletics Federations. The following year saw the establishment of the IAAF World Championships in Athletics – the first ever global competition for just athletics which became one of track and field's most prestigious competitions along with the Olympics.

The profile of the sport reached a new high in the 1980s, with a number of athletes becoming household names (such as Carl Lewis, Sergey Bubka, Sebastian Coe, Zola Budd and Florence Griffith-Joyner). Many world records were broken in this period, and the added political element between competitors of the United States, East Germany, and the Soviet Union, in reaction to the Cold War, only served to stoke the sport's popularity. The increase in the commercial capacity of track and field was also met with developments in the application of sports science, and there were many changes to coaching methods, athlete's diet regimes, training facilities and sports equipment. This was also accompanied by an increase in the use of performance-enhancing drugs, and prominent cases, such as those of Olympic gold medallists Ben Johnson and Marion Jones, damaged the public image and marketability of the sport.

From the 1990s onwards, track and field became increasingly more professional and international, as the IAAF gained over two hundred member nations. The IAAF World Championships in Athletics became a fully professional competition with the introduction of prize money in 1997, and in 1998 the IAAF Golden League — an annual series of major track and field meetings in Europe — provided a higher level of economic incentive in the form of a US$1 million jackpot. In 2010, the series was replaced by the more lucrative IAAF Diamond League which comprises meetings in Europe, Asia, North America and the Middle East – the first ever worldwide annual series of track and field meetings.

Events

Track and field events are divided into three broad categories: track events, field events, and combined events. The majority of athletes tend to specialise in just one event (or event type) with the aim of perfecting their performances, although the aim of combined events athletes is to become proficient in a number of disciplines. Track events involve running on a track over a specified distances and—in the case of the hurdling and steeplechase events—obstacles may be placed on the track. There are also relay races in which teams of athletes run and pass on a baton to their team member at the end of a certain distance.

There are two types of field events: jumps, and throws. In jumping competitions, athletes are judged on either the length or height of their jumps. The performances of jumping events for distance are measured from a board or marker, and any athlete overstepping this mark is judged to have fouled. In the jumps for height, an athlete must clear his or her body over a crossbar without knocking the bar off the supporting standards. The majority of jumping events are unaided, although athletes propel themselves vertically with purpose-built sticks in the pole vault.

The throwing events involve hurling an implement (such as a heavy weight, javelin or discus) from a set point, with athletes being judged on the distance that the object is thrown. Combined events involve the same group of athletes contesting a number of different track and field events. Points are given for their performance in each event and the athlete with the greatest points total at the end of all events is the winner.

Running

Sprints

Races over short distances, or sprints, are among the oldest running competitions. The first 13 editions of the Ancient Olympic Games featured only one event – the stadion race, which was literally a race from one end of the stadium to the other. Sprinting events are focused around athletes reaching and sustaining their quickest possible running speed. There are three sprinting events which are currently held at the Olympics and outdoor World Championships: the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 400 metres. These events have their roots in races of imperial measurements which were later altered to metric: the 100 m evolved from the 100 yard dash, the 200 m distances came from the furlong (or 1/8 of a mile), and the 400 m was the successor to the 440 yard dash or quarter-mile race.

At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained. Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, with the sole exception of the 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum speed. Human physiology dictates that a runner's near-top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so as lactic acid builds up and leg muscles begin to be deprived of oxygen.

The 60 metres is a common indoor event and it is an indoor world championship event. Other less-common events include the 50 metres, 55 metres, 300 metres and 500 metres which are used in some high school and collegiate competitions in the United States. The 150 metres, though rarely competed, has a star-studded history: Pietro Mennea set a world best in 1983, Olympic champions Michael Johnson and Donovan Bailey went head-to-head over the distance in 1997, and Usain Bolt improved Mennea's record in 2009.

Middle distance

The most common middle distance track events are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle distance event. The 880 yard run, or half mile, was the forebear to the 800 m distance and it has its roots in competitions in the United Kingdom in the 1830s. The 1500 m came about as a result of running three laps of a 500 m track, which was commonplace in continental Europe in the 20th century.

Runners start the race from a standing position along a curved starting line and after hearing the starter's pistol they head towards the inner-most track to follow the quickest route to the finish. In 800 m races athletes begin at a staggered starting point before the turn in the track and they must remain in their lanes for the first 100 m of the race. This rule was introduced in order to reduce the amount of physical jostling between runners in the early stages of the race. Physiologically, these middle distance events demand that athletes have good aerobic and anaerobic energy producing systems, and also that they have strong speed endurance.

The 1500 m and mile run events have historically been some of the most prestigious track and field events. Swedish rivals Gunder Hägg and Arne Andersson broke each other's 1500 m and mile world records on a number of occasions in the 1940s. The prominence of the distances were maintained by Roger Bannister, who (in 1954) was the first to run the long-elusive four-minute mile, and Jim Ryun's exploits served to popularise interval training. Races between British rivals Sebastian Coe, Steve Ovett and Steve Cram characterised middle distance running in 1980s. From the 1990s onwards, North Africans such as Noureddine Morceli of Algeria and Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco came to dominate the 1500 and mile events.

Beyond the short distances of sprinting events, factors such as an athlete's reactions and top speed becomes less important, while qualities such as pace, race tactics and endurance become more so.

Long distance

There are three common long distance running events in track and field competitions: 3000 metres, 5000 metres and 10,000 metres. The latter two races are both Olympic and World Championship events outdoors, while the 3000 m is held at the IAAF World Indoor Championships. The 5000 m and 10,000 m events have their historical roots in the 3-mile and 6-mile races. The 3000 m was historically used as a women's long distance event, entering the World Championship programme in 1983 and Olympic programme in 1984, but this was abandoned in favour of a women's 5000 m event in 1995.

In terms of competition rules and physical demands, long distance track races have much in common with middle distance races, except that pacing, stamina, and race tactics become much greater factors in performances. However, a number of athletes have achieved success in both middle and long distance events, including Saïd Aouita who set world records from 1500 m to 5000 m. The use of pace-setters in long distance events is very common at the elite level, although they are not present at championship level competitions as all qualified competitors want to win.

The long distance track events gained popularity in the 1920s by the achievements of the "Flying Finns", such as multiple Olympic champion Paavo Nurmi. The successes of Emil Zátopek in the 1950s promoted intense interval training methods, but Ron Clarke's world record-breaking feats established the importance of natural training and even-paced running. The 1990s saw the rise of North and East African runners in long distance events. Kenyan and Ethiopian athletes, in particular, have since remained dominant in these events.

Relays

Relay races are the only track and field event in which a team of runners directly compete against other teams. Typically, a team is made up of four runners of the same sex. Each runner completes their specified distance (referred to as a leg) before handing over a baton to a team mate, who then begins their leg upon receiving the baton. There is usually a designated area in which athletes must exchange the baton. Teams may be disqualified if they fail to complete the change within the area, or if the baton is dropped during the race. A team may also be disqualified if its runners are deemed to have wilfully impeded other competitors.

Relay races emerged in the United States in the 1880s as a variation on charity races between firemen, who would hand a red pennant on to team mates every 300 yards. There are two very common relay events: the 4×100 metres relay and the 4×400 metres relay. Both events entered the Olympic programme at the 1912 Summer Games after a one-off men's medley relay featured in 1908 Olympics. The 4×100 m event is run strictly within the same lane on the track, meaning that the team collectively runs one complete circuit of the track. Teams in a 4×400 m event remain in their own lane until the runner of the second leg passes the first bend, at which point runners can leave their lanes and head towards the inner-most part of the circuit. For the second and third baton change overs, team mates must align themselves in respect of their team position – leading teams take the inner lanes while team mates of the slower teams must await the baton on outer lanes.

The IAAF keeps world records for five different types of track relays. As with 4×100 m and 4×400 m events, all races comprise teams of four athletes running the same distances, with the less commonly contested distances being the 4×200 m, 4×800 m and 4×1500 m relays. Other events include the distance medley relay (comprising legs of 1200 m, 400 m, 800 m, and 1600 m) which is frequently held in the United States, and a sprint relay – known as the Swedish medley relay – which is popular in Scandinavia and is also featured on the World Youth Championships in Athletics programme. Relay events have significant participation in the United States, where a number of large meetings (or relay carnivals) are focused almost exclusively on relay events.

Hurdling

Races with hurdles as obstacles were first popularised in the 19th century in England. The first known event, held in 1830, was a variation of the 100-yard dash which included heavy wooden barriers as obstacles. A competition between the Oxford and Cambridge Athletic Clubs in 1864 refined this; holding a 120-yard race (109.72 m) which had ten hurdles of 3-foot and 6 inches (1.06 m) in height (each placed 10 yards (9.14 m) apart), with the first and final hurdles 15 yards from the start and finish, respectively. French organisers adapted the race into metric (adding 28 cm) and the basics of this race, the men's 110 metres hurdles, has remained largely unchanged. The origin of the 400 metres hurdles also lies in Oxford, where (around 1860) a competition was held over 440 yards and twelve 1.06 m high wooden barriers were placed along the course. The modern regulations stem from the 1900 Summer Olympics: the distance was fixed to 400 m while ten 3-foot (91.44 cm) hurdles were placed 35 m apart on the track, with the first and final hurdles being 45 m and 40 m away from the start and finish, respectively. Women's hurdles are slightly lower at 84 cm for the 100 m event and 76 cm (2 ft 6in) for the 400 m event.

By far the most common events are the 100 metres hurdles for women, 110 m hurdles for men and 400 m hurdles for both sexes. The men's 110 m has been featured at every modern Summer Olympics while the men's 400 m was introduced in the second edition of the Games. Women's initially competed in the 80 metres hurdles event, which entered the Olympic programme in 1932. This was extended to the 100 m hurdles at the 1972 Olympics, but it was not until 1984 that a women's 400 m hurdles event took place at the Olympics (having been introduced at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics the previous year).

Outside of the hurdles events, the steeplechase race is the other track and field event which includes obstacles. Just as the hurdling events, the steeplechase finds its origin in student competition in Oxford, England. However, this event was born as a human variation on the original steeplechase competition found in horse racing. A steeplechase event was held on a track for the 1879 English championships and the 1900 Summer Olympics featured men's 2500 m and 4000 m steeplechase races. The event was held over various distances until the 1920 Summer Olympics marked the rise of the 3000 metres steeplechase as the standard event. The IAAF set the standards of the event in 1954, and the event is held on a 400 m circuit which includes a water jump on each lap. Despite the long history of men's steeplechase in track and field, the women's steeplechase only gained World Championship status in 2005, with its first Olympic appearance coming in 2008.

Jumping

Long jump

The long jump is one of the oldest track and field events, having its roots as one of the events within the ancient Greek pentathlon contest. The athletes would take a short run up and jump into an area of dug up earth, with the winner being the one who jumped furthest. Small weights (Halteres) were held in each hand during the jump then swung back and dropped near the end in order to gain extra momentum and distance. The modern long jump, standardised in England and the United States around 1860, bears resemblance to the ancient event although no weights are used. Athletes sprint along a length of track which leads up to a jumping board and a sandpit. The athletes must jump before a marked line and their achieved distance is measured from the nearest point of sand which was disturbed by the athlete's body.

The athletics competition at the first Olympics featured a men's long jump competition and a women's competition was introduced at the 1948 Summer Olympics. Professional long jumpers typically have strong acceleration and sprinting abilities. However, athletes must also have a consistent stride to allow them to take off near the board while still maintaining their maximum speed. In addition to the traditional long jump, a standing long jump contest exists in which athletes must leap from a static position without the aid of a run up. A men's version of this event featured on the Olympic programme from 1900 to 1912.

Triple jump

Similar to the long jump, the triple jump takes place on a track heading towards a sandpit. Originally, athletes would hop on the same leg twice before jumping into the pit, but this was changed to the current "hop, step and jump" pattern from 1900 onwards. There is some dispute over whether the triple jump was contested in ancient Greece: while some historians claim that a contest of three jumps occurred at Ancient Games, others such as Stephen G. Miller believe this to be incorrect, suggesting that the belief stems from a mythologised account of Phayllus of Croton having jumped 55 ancient feet (around 16.3 m). The Book of Leinster, a 12th century Irish manuscript, records the existence of ''geal-ruith'' (triple jump) contests at the ancient Tailteann Games.

The men's triple jump competition has been ever-present at the modern Olympics, but it was not until 1993 that a women's version gained World Championship status and went on to have its first Olympic appearance three years later. A men's standing triple jump event featured at the 1900 and 1904 Olympics but such competitions have since become very uncommon, although it is still used as a non-competitive exercise drill.

High jump

The first recorded instances of high jumping competitions were in Scotland in the 19th century. Further competitions were organised in 1840 in England and in 1865 the basic rules of the modern event were standardised there. Athletes have a short run up and then take off from one foot to jump over a horizontal bar and fall back onto a cushioned landing area. The men's high jump was included in the 1896 Olympics and a women's competition soon followed in 1928.

Jumping technique has played a significant part in the history of the event. High jumpers typically cleared the bar feet first in the late 19th century, using either the Scissors, Eastern cut-off or Western roll technique. The straddle technique became prominent in the mid-20th century, but Dick Fosbury overturned tradition by pioneering a backwards and head-first technique in the late 1960s – the Fosbury Flop – which won him the gold at the 1968 Olympics. This technique has become the overwhelming standard for the sport from the 1980s onwards. The standing high jump was contested at the Olympics from 1900 to 1912, but is now relatively uncommon outside of its use as an exercise drill.

Pole vault

In terms of sport, the use of poles for vaulting distances was recorded in Fierljeppen contests in the Frisian area of Europe, and vaulting for height was seen at gymnastics competitions in Germany in the 1770s. One of the earliest recorded pole vault competitions was in Cumbria, England in 1843. The basic rules and technique of the event originated in the United States. The rules required that athletes do not move their hands along the pole and athletes began clearing the bar with their feet first and twisting so that the stomach faces the bar. Bamboo poles were introduced in the 20th century and a metal box in the runway for planting the pole became standard. Landing matresses were introduced in the mid-20th century to protect the athletes who were clearing increasingly greater heights.

The modern event sees athletes run down a strip of track, plant the pole in the metal box, and vault over the horizontal bar before letting go of the pole and falling backwards onto the landing matress. While earlier versions used wooden, metal or bamboo, modern poles are generally made from artificial materials such as fibreglass or carbon fibre. The pole vault has been an Olympic event since 1896 for men, but it was over 100 years later that the first women's world championship competition was held at the 1997 IAAF World Indoor Championships. The first women's Olympic pole vaulting competition occurred in 2000.

Throwing

Shot put

The genesis of the shot put can be traced to pre-historic competitions with rocks: in the middle ages the stone put was known in Scotland and the steinstossen was recorded in Switzerland. In the 17th century, cannonball throwing competitions within the English military provided a precursor to the modern sport. The modern rules were first laid out in 1860 and legal throws had to be taken within a square throwing area of seven feet (2.13 m) on each side. This was amended to a circle area with a seven foot diameter in 1906 and the weight of the shot was standardised to 16 pounds (7.26 kg). Throwing technique was also refined over this period, with bent arm throws being banned as they were deemed too dangerous and the side-step and throw technique arising in the United States in 1876. Shot Putters are generally the largest and most explosive athletes on a team.

The shot put has been an Olympic sport for men since 1896 and a women's competition using a 4 kg (8.82 lb) shot was added in 1948. Further throwing techniques have arisen since the post-war era: in the 1950s Parry O'Brien popularised the 180 degree turn and throw technique commonly known as the "glide," breaking the world record 16 times along the way, while Aleksandr Baryshnikov and Brian Oldfield introduced the "spin" or rotational technique in 1976.

Discus throw

As one of the events within the ancient pentathlon, the history of the discus throw dates back to 708 BC. In ancient times a heavy circular disc was thrown from a set standing position on a small pedestal, and it was this style that was revived for the 1896 Olympics. This continued until the 1906 Intercalated Games in Athens, which featured both the ancient style and the increasingly popular modern style of turning and throwing. By the 1912 Olympics, the ancient standing throw style had fallen into disuse and contests starting within a 2.5 m squared throwing area became the standard. The discus implement was standardised to 2 kg (4.4 pounds) in weight and 22 cm (8 inches) in diameter in 1907. The women's discus was among the first women's events on the Olympic programme, being introduced in 1928.

Javelin throw

As an implement of war and hunting, javelin throwing began in prehistoric times. Along with the discus, the javelin was the second throwing event in the ancient Olympic pentathlon. Records from 708 BC show two javelin competition types co-existing: throwing at a target and throwing the javelin for distance. It was the latter type from which the modern event was derived. In ancient competitions, athletes would wrap an ''ankyle'' (thin leather strip) around the javelin which acted as a sling to gain extra distance. The javelin throw gained much popularity in Scandinavia in the late 18th century and athletes from the region continue to be among the most dominant throwers in men's competitions. The modern event features a short run up on a track and then the thrower releases the javelin before the foul line.

The first Olympic men's javelin throw contest was held in 1908 and a women's competition was introduced in 1932. The first javelins were made of various types of wood, but in the 1950s, former athlete Bud Held introduced a hollow javelin, then a metal javelin, both of which increased throwers performances. Another former athlete, Miklós Németh invented the rough-tailed javelin and throws reached in excess of 100 m – edging towards the limits of stadia. The distances and the increasing number of horizontal landings led the IAAF to redesign the men's javelin to reduce distance and increase the implement's downward pitching moment to allow for easier measurement. Rough-tailed designs were banned in 1991 and all marks achieved with such javelins were removed from the record books. The women's javelin underwent a similar redesign in 1999. The current javelin specifications are 2.6 to 2.7 m in length and 800 grams in weight for men, and between 2.2 to 2.3 m and 600 g for women.

Hammer throw

The earliest recorded precursors to the modern hammer throw stem from the Tailteann Games around 1800 BC, which featured events such as throwing either a weight attached to a rope, a large rock on a wooden handle, or even a chariot wheel on a wooden axle. Other ancient competitions included throwing a cast iron ball attached to a wooden handle – the root of the term "hammer throw" due to their resemblance to the tools. In 16th century England, contests involving the throwing of actual blacksmith's Sledgehammers were recorded. The hammer implement was standardised in 1887 and the competitions began to resemble the modern event. The weight of the metal ball was set at 16 pounds (7.26 kg) while the attached wire had to measure between 1.175 m and 1.215 m.

The men's hammer throw became an Olympic event in 1900 but the women's event – using a 4 kg (8.82 lb) weight – was not widely competed until much later, finally featuring on the women's Olympic programme a century later. The distance's thrown by male athletes became greater from the 1950s onwards as a result of improved equipment using the denser metals, a switch to concrete throwing areas, and more advanced training techniques. Professional hammer throwers as historically large, strong, sturdy athletes. However, qualities such as refined technique, speed and flexibility have become increasingly important in the modern era as the legal throwing area has been reduced from 90 to 34.92 degrees and throwing technique involves three to four controlled rotations.

Combined events

Combined (or multi-discipline) events are competitions in which athletes participate in a number of track and field events, earning points for their performance in each events which goes towards a total points score. Outdoors, the most common combined events are the men's decathlon and the women's heptathlon. Due to stadium limitations, indoor combined events competition have a reduced number of events, resulting in the men's heptathlon and the women's pentathlon. Athletes are allocated points based on an international-standard points scoring system, such as the decathlon scoring table.

The Ancient Olympic pentathlon (comprising long jump, javelin, discus, the ''stadion'' race and wrestling) was a precursor to the track and field combined events and this ancient event was restored at the 1906 Summer Olympics (Intercalated Games). A men's decathlon was held at the 1904 Summer Olympics, albeit contested between five American and two British athletes.

Stadia

Outdoor

The term track and field is intertwined with the stadiums which first hosted track and field competitions. The two basic features of a track and field stadium are the outer oval-shaped running track and an area of turf within this track – the field. In earlier competitions the lengths of the tracks varied: the Panathinaiko Stadium measured 333.33 metres at the 1896 Summer Olympics, while at the 1904 Olympics the distance was a third of a mile (536.45 m) at Francis Field. As the sport developed, the IAAF standardised the length to 400 m and stated that the tracks must be split into six to eight running lanes. Precise widths for the lanes were established, as were regulations regarding the curvature of the track. Tracks made of flattened cinders were popular in the early 20th century but synthetic tracks became standard in the late 1960s. 3M's Tartan track (an all-weather running track of polyurethane) gained popularity after its use at the 1968 US Olympic Trials and the 1968 Summer Olympics and it began the process in which synthetic tracks became the standard for the sport. Many track and field stadiums are multi-purpose stadiums, with the running track surrounding a field which is built for other sports such as the various types of football.

The field of the stadium combines a number of elements for use in the jumping and throwing events. The long jump and triple jump areas comprise a straight, narrow 40-metre running track with a sandpit at one or both ends. Jumps are measured from a take off board – typically a small strip of wood with a plasticine marker attached – which is used to ensure athletes jump from behind the measurement line. The pole vault area is also a 40-metre running track and it has an indentation in the ground (the box) in which poles are planted. Athletes then propel themselves over a crossbar before falling onto a cushioned area of landing mats. The high jump is a stripped down version of this, with an open area of track or field leading up to a crossbar with a square area of landing mats behind it.

The four throwing events generally all begin on one side of the stadium. The javelin throw typically takes place on a piece of track that is central and parallel to the straights of the main running track. The javelin throwing area is a sector shape frequently across the Pitch (sports field) in the middle of the stadium, ensuring that the javelin has a minimal chance of causing damage or injury. The discus throw and hammer throw contests begin in a tall metal cage which is usually situated in one of the corners of the field. The cage reduces the danger of implements being thrown out of the field of play and throws will travel diagonally across the field in the centre of the stadium. The shot put features a circular throwing area with a toe board at one end. The throwing area is a sector. Some stadia also have a water jump area on one side of the field specifically for steeplechase races.

Indoor

Basic indoor venues may be adapted gymnasiums, which can easily accommodate high jump competitions and short track events. Full-size indoor arenas (i.e. those fully equipped to host all events for the World Indoor Championships) bear similarities with their outdoor equivalents. Typically, a central area is surrounded by a 200-metre oval track with four to eight lanes. The track may be banked at the turns to allow athletes to run around the radius more comfortably. There is also a second running track going straight across the field area, parallel to the straights of the main circuit. This track is used for the 60 metres and 60 metres hurdles events – competitions which are held almost exclusively indoors. Another common adaptation is a 160 yard track (11 laps to a mile) that fits into a common basketball court sized arena. This was quite popular when races were held at imperial distances, which gradually was phased out by different organizations in the 1970s and 1980s. Examples of this configuration include the Millrose Games at Madison Square Garden, and the Sunkist Invitational formerly held in the Los Angeles Sports Arena.

All four of the common jumping events are held at indoor venues. The long and triple jump areas run alongside the central 60 m track and are mostly identical in form to their outdoor counterparts. The pole vault track and landing area are also alongside the central running track. Shot put (or weight throw) is the only throwing event held indoors due to size restrictions. The throwing area is similar to the outdoor event, but the landing sector is a rectangular section surrounded by netting or a stop barrier.

Rules

Track rules

The rules of track athletics or of track events in athletics as observed in most international athletics competitions are set by the Competition Rules of the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). The most recent complete set of rules is the 2009 rules that relate only to competitions in 2009. Key rules of track events are those regarding starting, running and finishing.

Starting

The start of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide. In all races that are not run in lanes the start line must be curved, so that all the athletes start the same distance from the finish. Starting blocks may be used for all races up to and including 400 m (including the first leg of the 4 x 200 m and 4 x 400 m) and may not be used for any other race. No part of the starting block may overlap the start line or extend into another lane. All races must be started by the report of the starter's gun or approved starting apparatus fired upwards after he or she has ascertained that athletes are steady and in the correct starting position. An athlete may not touch either the start line or the ground in front of it with his or her hands or feet when on his or her marks. At most international competitions the commands of the starter in his or her own language, in English or in French, shall, in races up to and including 400 m, be "On your marks" and "Set". When all athletes are "set", the gun must be fired, or an approved starting apparatus must be activated. However, if the starter is not satisfied that all is ready to proceed, the athletes may be called out of the blocks and the process started over.

False start: An athlete, after assuming a final set position, may not commence his starting motion until after receiving the report of the gun, or approved starting apparatus. If, in the judgment of the starter or recallers, he does so any earlier, it is considered a false start. It is deemed a false start if, in the judgment of the starter an athlete fails to comply with the commands "on your marks" or "set" as appropriate after a reasonable time; or an athlete after the command "on your marks" disturbs other athletes in the race through sound or otherwise. If the runner is in the "set" position and moves, then the runner is also disqualified. As of 2010, any athlete making a false start is disqualified. This rule was already in place in high school and college.

In International Elite competition, electronically tethered starting blocks sense the reaction time of the athletes. If the athlete reacts in less than 0.1 second, an alert sounds for a recall starter and the offending athlete is guilty of a false start.

Running the race

In all races run in lanes, each athlete must keep within his allocated lane from start to finish. This also applies to any portion of a race run in lanes. If an athlete leaves the track or steps on the line demarking the track, he/she should be disqualified. Also, any athlete who jostles or obstructs another athlete, in a way that impedes his progress, should be disqualified from that event. However, if an athlete is pushed or forced by another person to run outside his lane, and if no material advantage is gained, the athlete should not be disqualified.

There are races that start in lanes and then at a "break" line, the competitors merge. Examples of this are the 800 metres, 4x400 relay and the indoor 400 metres. Variations on this, with alleys made up of multiple lanes on the track, are used to start large fields of distance runners.

The finish

The finish of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide. The athletes must be placed in the order in which any part of their torso (as distinguished from the head, neck, arms, legs, hands or feet) reaches the vertical plane of the nearer edge of the finish line. Fully automatic timing systems (photo timing) are becoming more and more common at increasingly lower levels of track meets, improving the accuracy, while eliminating the need for eagle-eyed officials on the finish line. Fully automatic timing (FAT) is required for high level meets and any time a (sprint) record is set (though distance records can be accepted if timed by three independent stopwatches).

With the accuracy of the timing systems, ties are rare. Ties between different athletes are resolved as follows: In determining whether there has been a tie in any round for a qualifying position for the next round based on time, a judge (called the chief photo finish judge) must consider the actual time recorded by the athletes to one thousandth of a second. If the judge decides that there has been a tie, the tying athletes must be placed in the next round or, if that is not practicable, lots must be drawn to determine who must be placed in the next round. In the case of a tie for first place in any final, the referee decides whether it is practicable to arrange for the athletes so tying to compete again. If he decides it is not, the result will stand. Ties in other placings remain.

Field rules

In general, most field events allow a competitor to take their attempt individually, under theoretically the same conditions as the other competitors in the competition. Each attempt is measured to determine who achieved the longest distance.

Vertical jumps (High Jump and Pole Vault) set a bar at a particular height. The competitor must clear the bar without knocking it off the standards that are holding the bar (flat). Three failures in a row will end the competitor's participation in the event. The competitor has the option to PASS their attempt, which can be used to strategic advantage (of course that advantage is lost if the competitor misses). A pass could be used to save energy and avoid taking a jump that would not improve their position in the standings. After all competitors have either cleared, passed or failed their attempts at a height, the bar will go up. The amount the bar goes up is predetermined before the competition, though when one competitor remains, that competitor may choose their own heights for the remaining attempts. A record is kept of each attempt by each competitor. After all competitors have taken their attempts, the one jumping the highest is the winner, and so on down the other competitors in the event. Ties are broken by first, the number of attempts taken at the highest height (fewest wins), and then if still tied, by the total number of misses in the competition as a whole. The bar does not go back to a lower height except to break a tie for first place or a qualifying position. If those critical positions are still tied after applying the tiebreakers, all tied competitors will take a fourth jump at the last height. If they still miss, the bar will go down one increment where they will again jump. This process will continue until the tie is broken.

Horizontal jumps (Long Jump and Triple Jump) and all throws must be initiated behind a line. In the case of horizontal jumps, that line is a straight line perpendicular to the runway. In the case of throws, that line is an arc or a circle. Crossing the line while initiating the attempt will invalidate the attempt—it will become a foul. All landings must occur in a sector. For the jumps, that is a sand filled pit, for throws it is a defined sector. A throw landing on the line on the edge of sector is a foul (the inside edge of the line is the outside edge of the sector). Assuming a proper attempt, officials will then measure the distance from the closest landing point back to the line. The measuring tape is carefully straightened to the shortest distance between the point and the line. To accomplish this, the tape must be perfectly perpendicular to the take off line in jumps, or is pulled through the center point of the arc for throws. The officials at the landing end of the tape have the zero, while the officials at the point of initiation will see the length and record the measurement. Whenever a record (or potential record) occurs, that measurement is taken (again) using a steel tape and observed by at least three officials (plus usually the meet referee). Steel tapes tend to be easily bent and damaged, so they are not used to measure everyday competitions. For major competitions, each competitor will get three attempts. The top competitors (usually 8 or 9 depending on that competition's rules or the number of lanes on the track) will get three more attempts. At that level of competition, the order of competitors for those final three attempts are set in order so the competitor in first place at the end of the third round will be last, while the last competitor to qualify will go first. Some meets will rearrange the competition order again for the final round so the final attempt will be taken by the leader at that point. At other competitions, meet management may choose to limit all competitors to four or three attempts. Whatever the format, all competitors get an equal number of attempts.

Organizations

The international governance of track and field falls under the jurisdiction of athletics organisations. The International Association of Athletics Federations is the global governing body for track and field, and athletics as a whole. The governance of track and field at continental and national level is also done by athletics bodies. Some national federations are named after the sport, including USA Track & Field and the Philippine Amateur Track & Field Association, but these organisations govern more than just track and field and are in fact athletics governing bodies. These national federations regulate sub-national and local track and field clubs, as well as other types of running clubs.

Competitions

Olympics and World Championships

The major global track and field competitions are both held under the scope of athletics. Track and field contests make up the majority of events on the Olympic athletics programme which occurs every four years. Track and field events have held a prominent position at the Summer Olympics since its inception in 1896, and the events are typically held in the main stadium of the Olympics. Events such as the 100 metres receive some of the highest levels of media coverage of any Olympic sporting event.

The other two major international competition for track and field are organised by the IAAF. The IAAF had selected the Olympic competition as its world championship event in 1913, but a separate world championships for athletics alone was first held in 1983 – the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The championships comprised track and field competitions plus the marathon and racewalking competitions. Initially, this worked on a quadrennial basis but, after 1991, it changed to a biennial format. In terms of indoor track and field, the IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athletics has been held every two years since 1985 and this is the only world championships that consists of solely track and field events.

Other championships

Similar to the event programmes at the Olympics and World Championships, track and field forms a significant part of continental championships. The South American Championships in Athletics, created in 1919, was the first continental championships and the European Athletics Championships became the second championships of this type in 1934. The Asian Athletics Championships and African Championships in Athletics were created in the 1970s and Oceania started its championships in 1990.

There are also indoor continental competitions in Europe (European Athletics Indoor Championships) and Asia (Asian Indoor Athletics Championships). There has not been a consistent championships for all of North America, which may be (in part) due to the success of both the Central American and Caribbean Championships and the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships. Most countries have a national championship in track and field and, for athletes, these often play a role in gaining selection into major competitions. In some countries there are many track and field championships at high school and college-level which serve to develop the abilities of younger athletes; some of these have achieved significant exposure and prestige, such as the NCAA Track and Field Championship in the United States and the Jamaican High School Championships. However, the number and status of such competitions significantly vary from country to country.

Multi-sport events

Mirroring the role that track and field events have at the Summer Olympics, the sport is featured within the athletics programmes of many major multi-sport events. Among some of the first of these events to follow the Olympic-style model were the World University Games in 1923, the Commonwealth Games in 1930, and the Maccabiah Games in 1932. The number of major multi-sport events greatly increased during the 20th century and thus did the number of track and field events held within them. Typically, track and field events are hosted at the main stadium of the games.

After the Olympic Games, the most prominent events for track and field athletes include the three IOC-sanctioned continental games: the All-Africa Games, Asian Games, and the Pan American Games. Other games such as the Commonwealth Games and Summer Universiade, and World Masters Games have significant participation from track and field athletes. Track and field is also present at the national games level, with competitions such as the Chinese National Games serving as a the most prestigious national competition for domestic track and field athletes.

Meetings

One-day track and field meetings form the most common and seasonal aspect of the sport – they are the most basic level of track and field competition. Meetings are generally organised annually either under the patronage of an educational institution or sports club, or by a group or business which serves as the meeting promoter. In the case of the former, athletes are selected to represent their club or institution. In the case of privately run or independent meetings, athletes participate on an invitation-only basis.

The most basic type of meetings are all-comers track meets, which are largely small, local, informal competitions that allow people of all ages and abilities to compete. As meetings become more organized they can gain official sanctioning by the local or national association for the sport.

At the professional level, meetings began to offer significant financial incentives for all athletes in the 1990s in Europe with the creation of the "Golden Four" competition, comprising meetings in Zürich, Brussels, Berlin and Oslo. This expanded and received IAAF backing as the IAAF Golden League in 1998, which was later supplemented by the branding of selected meetings worldwide as the IAAF World Athletics Tour. In 2010, the Golden League idea was expanded globally as the IAAF Diamond League series and this now forms the top tier of professional one-day track and field meetings.

Records

Athletes performances are timed or measured at virtually all track and field competitions. Doing so can not only serve as a way of determining the winner in an event, but it can also be used for historical comparison (i.e. a record). A large variety of record types exist and men's and women's performances are recorded separately. The foremost types of records are those which organise athlete's performances by the region which they are representing: beginning with national records, then continental records, up to the global or world record level. National governing bodies control the national record lists, the area associations organise their respective continental lists, and the IAAF is the body which ratifies world records.

The IAAF ratifies track and field world records if they meet their set criteria. The IAAF first published a world records list in 1914, initially for men's events only. There were 53 recognised records in running, hurdling and relay, and 12 field records. World records in women's events began in 1936 as more events were gradually added to the list, but significant changes were made in the late 1970s. First, all records in imperial measurements were abandoned in 1976, with the sole exceptional being the mile run due to the prestige and history of the event. The following year, all world records in sprint events would only be recognised if fully automatic electronic timing was used (as opposed to the traditional hand-timing stopwatch method). In 1981, electronic timing was made compulsory for all world record runs in track and field, with times being recorded to within one hundredth of a second. Two additional types of world record were introduced in 1987: world records for indoor competitions, and world records for junior athletes under 20 years old.

The next most important record type are those achieved at a specific competition – for example the Olympic records which are the best performances by athletes during events at the Summer Olympics. All major championships and games have their relevant competition records and a large number of track and field meetings keep a note of their meet records. Other record types include: stadium records, records by age range, records by disability, and records by institution or organisation. Cash bonuses are usually offered to athletes if they break significant records, as doing so can generate greater interest and public attendance in track and field competitions.

Doping

Track and field athletes are banned from ingesting or using certain substances by governing bodies for the sport, from the national to the global level. The IAAF's constitution incorporates the World Anti-Doping Code among other anti-doping measures. Practices such as blood doping and the use of anabolic steroids, peptide hormones, stimulants, or diuretics can give athletes a physical competitive advantage in track and field. The use of such substances in track and field is opposed on both ethical and medical grounds. Given that the sport functions by measuring and comparing athletes' performances, performance-enhancing substances create an uneven playing field — athletes who do not use doping substances have a disadvantage over rivals who do. Medically, the use of banned substances may have an adverse effect upon athletes' health. However, some exemptions are made for athletes who take banned substances for therapeutic use, and athletes are not sanctioned for usage in these cases, such as Kim Collins' failed drug test due to asthma medication.

In order to prevent the use of performance-enhancing substances, athletes must submit to drug tests that are conducted both in- and out-of-competition by anti-doping officials or accredited medical staff. Athletes found to have taken substances on the World Anti-Doping Agency's banned list receive sanctions and may be banned from competition for a period of time, reflecting the seriousness of the infraction. However, the use of substances not on the prohibited list may also result in sanctions if the substance is deemed to be similar to a banned substance in either composition or effect. Athletes may also be sanctioned for missing tests, seeking to avoid testing or tampering with results, refusing to submit to testing, through circumstantial evidence, or confession of use.

Doping has played a significant part in the modern history of track and field. State-sponsored doping in East Germany with hormones and anabolic steroids marked the rise of women from the German Democratic Republic in track and field from the late 1960s to the 1980s. A number of these women, such as Marita Koch, broke world records and were highly successful at international competitions. Some athletes, who were following a doping plan from their teenage years, suffered significant health problems as a result of the regime. Ben Johnson ran a new world record in the 100 m at the 1988 Seoul Olympics but was later banned for using anabolic steroids. In the mid-first decade of the 21st century, the BALCO Scandal eventually resulted in the downfall of prominent sprinters such as Marion Jones and Tim Montgomery, among others, through their usage of banned substances.

References

External links

International Association of Athletics Federations website

USA Track & Field website

Track and field at About.com

Results & Statistics for Collegiate, High School, Middle School, and Club teams

Masters T&F World Rankings

* Category:Individual sports Category:Athletics by type

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Coordinates	32°13′0″N76°19′0″N
name	Dawn Harper
fullname	Dawn Harper
nationality
collegeteam	UCLA Bruins
birth date	May 13, 1984
birth place	East St. Louis, Illinois
height
weight
medaltemplates	}}

}} Dawn Harper (born May 13, 1984) from East St. Louis, Illinois is an American track and field athlete who specializes in the 100-meter hurdles. She was the gold medalist in the event at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. She is trained by Bob Kersee, husband of Jackie Joyner-Kersee, six time Olympic medalist.

During her time with the UCLA Bruins, Harper won the sprint hurdles at the US Junior Championships and at the Pan American Junior Athletics Championships. She received All-American honours twice at the 2004 NCAA Women's Outdoor Track and Field Championship, after coming eighth in the 100 m hurdles final and taking second place in the 4×100-meter relay.

Running at the 2008 Olympics, she upset the favorite (Lolo Jones) by winning in the 100 m hurdles in a time of 12.54 seconds, a new personal best for Harper. Harper closed her year with a third place performance at the 2009 IAAF World Athletics Final.

She recorded a personal best of 12.48 seconds in the semi-finals of the 100 m hurdles at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics in Berlin, but she only managed seventh place in the final. She managed to reach the podium at the 2009 IAAF World Athletics Final, however, and ran 12.61 seconds for a silver medal.

Personal life

Harper resided in Los Angeles, California at the Theta Xi house. She is the daughter of Henry and Linda Harper and has two sisters, Keya and Shivani, and one brother, Bryton. She attended UCLA and majored in psychology.

References

External links

Category:1984 births Category:Living people Category:American hurdlers Category:Olympic track and field athletes of the United States Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Olympics Category:Olympic gold medalists for the United States Category:Olympic medalists in athletics (track and field)

cs:Dawn Harperová de:Dawn Harper es:Dawn Harper fr:Dawn Harper it:Dawn Harper he:דון הרפר nl:Dawn Harper no:Dawn Harper pl:Dawn Harper pt:Dawn Harper fi:Dawn Harper sv:Dawn Harper uk:Дон Гарпер

Coordinates	32°13′0″N76°19′0″N
honorific-prefix	The Right Honourable
name	The Lord Coe
honorific-suffix	KBE
birth date	September 29, 1956
birth place	Chiswick, London, UK
nationality	British
party	Conservative
spouse	Nicky McIrvine (divorced)
relations	Peter Coe (father, deceased)
children	2 sons, 2 daughters
alma mater	Loughborough University
occupation	Peer and Athlete
footnotes	}}

}}

Sebastian Newbold Coe, Baron Coe, KBE (born 29 September 1956), often known as Seb Coe, is an English former athlete and politician. As a middle distance runner, Coe won four Olympic medals, including the 1500 metres gold medal at the Olympic Games in 1980 and 1984, and set eight outdoor and three indoor world records in middle distance track events (and also participated in a world record relay). His rivalries with fellow Britons Steve Ovett and Steve Cram dominated middle-distance racing for much of the 1980s.

Following his retirement from athletics he served as a Member of Parliament for the Conservative Party from 1992–97, and became a life peer in 2000. He was the head of the London bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics, and, after the International Olympic Committee awarded the games to London, became the chairman of the London Organising Committee for the Olympic Games. In 2007, he was also elected a vice-president of the International Association of Athletics Federations. On August 25, 2011, he was re-elected for another four year term.

Background

Coe was born in Chiswick, London. His mother, Tina Angela Coe, died in Hammersmith and Fulham, London, in 2005, aged 75. She was half-Indian, born to Punjabi father Sardari Lal and English mother Vera. His father, Peter Coe (born Percy N. Coe in Kingston-upon-Thames), died on 9 August 2008, aged 88, while Coe was in Beijing.

Coe was brought up in Sheffield attending Tapton and Abbeydale Grange schools. He joined athletics team Hallamshire Harriers at the age of 12, and quickly became a middle-distance specialist. He is probably better remembered as representing Loughborough University and later Haringey when not competing for his country.

He was coached by his father who designed workouts specifically for his son. Coe studied economics and social history at Loughborough University and won his first major race in 1977—an 800-metre event at the European indoor championships in San Sebastián, Spain. It was at Loughborough University that he met athletics coach George Gandy who had developed "revolutionary" conditioning exercise to improve Coe's running.

Athletic career

He first ran against Ovett in a schools cross country race in 1972. Neither won, nor did either win in their first major encounter in the European Championships Prague in 1978 in an 800 metre race, where Ovett (breaking Coe's UK record with a run of 1:44.09) was second and Coe finished third behind the East German Olaf Beyer. According to Pat Butcher, Coe's father and coach Peter Coe had encouraged him to run as fast as he could from the start. The early pace was indeed exceptionally fast: Coe ran 200 metres in 24.3 seconds, 400 metres in 49.32 seconds and 600 metres in 1:16.2: then he slowed down and finished third in 1:44.76.

A few weeks later Coe was to reclaim the UK record, setting an all-comers' mark of 1:43.97 at Crystal Palace to rank him second in the world that year. In October 1978, Coe displayed impressive endurance for an 800m runner by winning a four-mile road-race in Ireland in 17:54, defeating Eamonn Coghlan (1983 World 5000m champion) and Mike McLeod (1984 Olympic 10000m silver medalist), and breaking Brendan Foster's course record of 18:05.

The next year, 1979, Coe set three world records in 41 days. He set his first world records in Oslo, Norway in the 800-metre (1:42.33) and the mile (3:48.95) and later broke the world 1500 metre record (3:32.03) in Zurich, Switzerland. He easily won the 800m at the European Cup in Turin in August, covering the last 200m in 24.1 and anchored the British 4 x 400m relay team with the fastest split of the quartet, 45.5. He remained undefeated at all distances that year, was voted "athlete of the year" by Athletics Weekly and Track and Field News and was ranked number one in the world at 800m and 1500m: no other athlete since has ranked number one at these distances in the same year.

In 1980 Coe broke Rick Wohlhuter's world record for 1,000-metres with a time of 2:13.40 and held all four middle distance world records simultaneously, the 800m, 1000m, 1500m and the mile, for one hour until Ovett broke his mile record, another unique feat. In the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow, Ovett and Coe won each other's speciality; Ovett the 800 metres, and Coe the 1500 metres (Coe came in second in the 800 after running what he described as "the worst tactical race of my life", while Ovett took third in the 1500). It was Ovett's first defeat at either one mile or 1500 metres in three years and 45 races, and Coe covered the last 400 m in 52.2 and the last 100 m in 12.1 seconds, the fastest ever finish at this distance.

1981 started off in February with an indoor world record over 800 m at Cosford, time 1:46.0. His world record in the 800 metre race in Florence on June 10: his 1:41.73 in the 800 metres remained unbeaten until August 1997. As of 2010, this still stands as the UK record and makes him the third fastest man ever. A month afterwards he set another record with 2:12.18 for 1000 m, which was to last 19 years and to this day has only been bettered once. Coe was more than 1.7 seconds (about 14 m in distance) faster than anyone on record at both distances. Between these two record breaking runs he won the Europa Cup 800 m semi-final, running the last 100 m in 11.3 (the fastest ever recorded in a major international race), and achieved a personal best of 3:31.95 in the 1500 metres, despite dreadful pace making in the initial stages. In August he won the gold medal at the European Cup final, before going on to better the standard for the mile twice; first with a 3:48.53 in Zürich and then with a 3:47.33 in Brussels, either side of Ovett's world record in Koblenz (3:48.40). He ended a remarkable season with gold over 800m at the World Cup in Rome in September, and remained undefeated in both the 1500 metres/mile and the 800 metres for the entire season, as in 1979. Track & Field News and Athletics Weekly magazines voted Coe Athlete of the Year, an honour he had also won in 1979.

Although he had a short season in 1982 due to injuries in June and July, he still managed to rank number one in the world in the 800 metres and participate in a world record 4 x 800 metres relay in which Coe, Peter Elliott, Garry Cook and Steve Cram's time of 7:03.89, was to remain the world record for 24 years. Coe's leg was the fastest of the day, a solo 1:44.01. However he unexpectedly won only silver in the 800 m in the 1982 European Championships in Athletics in Athens. It transpired the next day by British team doctors, that he had been suffering from glandular fever. Coe decided to withdraw from the 1500 metres in those European Championships (Pat Butcher, The Perfect Distance).

1983 started with world indoor records in the 800 metres in Cosford, England (1:44.91, breaking his own 1981 1:46.0) and the 1,000 metres (2:18.58) in Oslo, Norway, but Coe spent most of the year battling health problems including a prolonged bout with toxoplasmosis. He missed the inaugural IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The disease was severe and he spent several months in and out of hospital on strong medication.

Coe returned to competition in spring 1984 and was selected for 800 and 1500 metres at the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles, despite being narrowly beaten by Peter Elliott in the AAA Championships. In the 800 metres he took silver behind Joaquim Cruz of Brazil, but in the 1500 metres he took gold with an Olympic record of 3:32.53. His last 800 m was run in 1:49.8, his last lap 53.2 and his last 100 m in 12.7. He remains the only person to win successive Olympic 1500 metre titles.

Coe planned to have a somewhat quiet season in 1985, due in part to the intensity of the previous year's efforts to get himself ready in time for the Olympics, as well as a planned move up to 5000m, which never materialised. He suffered a recurrence of a back problem which had plagued him on and off since 1980, causing him to miss several weeks of training mid season. Despite this he managed to set some fast times towards the end of the season, but was to lose his Mile world record to Cram, who beat him in Oslo.

In 1986 Coe won the gold medal over 800 m at the European Championships in Stuttgart, beating Tom McKean and Cram. with a stunning last 200 m of 24.7. It was his only 800 m title at an international championship. He won the silver in the 1500 metres, behind Cram, after running a bad tactical race, and set a personal best over 1500 m with a 3:29.77 min performance in Rieti, Italy, becoming the fourth man in history to break 3:30 for the 1500 m. For the fourth year in his career ('79, '81, '82, '86), Coe ranked number one in the world in the 800 metres and was in the top two for 1500 metres for the 5th time.

He got injured in May 1987 after winning an 800m for his club, Haringey, and was out for the entire season.

The following year he wasn't selected for the British 1988 Olympic Games team, when he failed to qualify from the heats of the 1500m at the Trials in Birmingham. He had shown good early season form, but after a spell of altitude training he picked up a chest infection. The Daily Mirror ran a campaign and the president of the International Olympic Committee, Juan Antonio Samaranch, unsuccessfully tried to have the rules changed in Coe's favour. It was said that the Indian team was willing to include him on account of his mother's parentage.

Coe had one more good season in 1989, when, at the age of 33 and past his absolute best, he still won the 1500 m AAA title, was ranked number 1 Britain over both 800 m and 1500 m, ran the second fastest 800 m of the year (1:43.38) and won the silver medal at the World Cup over 1500 m. He retired from competitive athletics in early 1990, after having to bow out at the Auckland Commonwealth Games with yet another chest infection. He ended his career with eight different seasons of sub 1:44 800 metre times.

The Trinity College Challenge

One scene in the 1981 film ''Chariots of Fire'' recreates a race in which the runners attempt to round the perimeter of the Great Court at Trinity College, Cambridge in the time it takes the clock to double strike the hour at midday or midnight. Many have tried to run the 367 metres (401 yards) around the court in the 43.6 seconds that it takes to strike 12 o'clock. Known as the Great Court Run, students traditionally attempt to complete the circuit on the evening of the Matriculation Dinner. The only person recognized to have actually completed the run in time is Lord Burghley in 1927. It was thought that Sebastian Coe had succeeded when he beat Steve Cram in a charity race in October 1988, in a time of 42.53 seconds. But a video of the race apparently shows Coe was 12 metres short of the finish line when the last chime sounded which is why Trinity College never officially accepted his time.

Later career

Name	Sebastian Coe
Constituency mp	Falmouth and Camborne
Term start	9 April 1992
Term end	2 May 1997
Predecessor	David Mudd
Successor	Candy Atherton
Birth date	September 29, 1956
Birth place	Chiswick, London
Nationality	British
Party	Conservative
Profession	Athlete
Footnotes	}}

Coe became Member of Parliament for Falmouth and Camborne in 1992, for the Conservative Party, but lost his seat in the 1997 general election. He returned to politics for a short time as William Hague's chief of staff, having taken a life peerage in 2000. During this time he tried his hand at a marathon, running a time of 2 hours and 58 minutes.

When London announced its bid to hold the 2012 Olympics, Coe became an ambassador for the effort and a member of the board of the bid company. With the May 2004 resignation of chairman Barbara Cassani, Coe became the chairman for the latter phase of the bid. As Coe was a well-known personality in Olympic sport, it was felt he was better suited to the political schmoozing needed to secure the IOC's backing. Coe's presentation at the critical IOC meeting in July 2005 was viewed by commentators as being particularly effective, and the bid won the IOC's blessing on 6 July.

Coe has often said that London 2012 is not only about five weeks of summer sport but about encouraging more people to take up sport at all levels of competition. Coe is the Patron of the British Dragon Boat Racing Association (BDA).

In September 2008 Coe controversially told reporters "Fuck 'em" when asked about the opposition to the creation of a footballing Team GB from Scottish and Welsh supporters as reported in ''The London Paper'', 30 September 2008, page 5 "Coe: Yes to 2012 GB footy team - The Scots and Welsh? F*** 'em".

FIFA

Coe was appointed the first chairman of FIFA's new independent watchdog, FIFA's ethics commission. The commission will judge all cases alleging conflicts of interest and breaches of Fifa rules.

FIFA president Sepp Blatter made the announcement in Zurich on 15 September 2006 and said: "It is perhaps a surprise but it has been very well received. We have found an outstanding personality in the world of sport, a great personality in the Olympic movement." His appointment makes him one of the most senior Englishmen to work for FIFA.

He stood down from this post to join the committee bidding to bring the 2018 World Cup to England.

Personal life

Coe married Nicky McIrvine, a former Badminton three-day-event champion, in Surrey, in 1990, with whom he has two sons and two daughters. The marriage ended in divorce in 2002 after twelve years and Coe moved out of the family home.

In 2003, Coe began a relationship with Carole Annett, the commercial retail editor for ''House & Garden'' magazine. In 2004, she left her husband and moved in with Coe at his home in Tilford, Surrey. The couple married in summer 2011.

He is a worldwide ambassador for Nike and owns a string of health clubs with a membership of 20,000. Coe is a knowledgeable follower of a wide range of sports, including football (he is a season ticket holder at Chelsea Football Club) and boxing (he was a steward for the British Boxing Board of Control). He is a multimillionaire and a member of the East India Club, a private Gentlemen's Club in London. He has supported London athletic events like the London 10K of Nike and the British 10K charity race.

On 12 February 2010, Coe was the 19th runner on the 106th day of the Vancouver Olympic Torch Relay. Coe's leg was along the Stanley Park Seawall, and he exchanged a "torch kiss" with the previous runner, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and the next runner, a 19 year old member of the Squamish community. He featured in an episode of Who Do You Think You Are? (British TV series) and is descended from Caribbean sugar farmers and slave owners, and a Governor General of New York (Hyde House) and Edward Hyde of Norbury.

Awards

Coe was awarded with the first Prince of Asturias Award in sports category in 1987.

Coe was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire in 1982 and an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1990.

He was created a life peer in 2000 as Baron Coe, of Ranmore in the County of Surrey.

In December 2005, Coe was given a Special award at the BBC Sports Personality of the Year awards ceremony.

He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2006 New Year's Honours List for services to sport.

Personal bests

!Distance

|	Mark	Date
''400 m''	46.87
''800 m''	1:41.73
''1000 m''	2:12.18
''1500 m''	3:29.77
''Mile''	3:47.33
''2000 m''	4:58.84
''3000 m''	7:54.32
''5000 m''	14:06.2

Trivia

Coe was featured in the ''Brass Eye'' spoof documentary on paedophilia.

He was a model for menswear retailer Horne Bros.

American Olympic 1500 m and 5000 m athlete Jim Spivey is said to have named a son after Coe.

Appeared as himself in the episode 'Not a Good Day' from the 4th series (season) of the British sitcom "The Brittas Empire"

Sebastian Coe is a Judo enthusiast. He is allergic to fish and amphetamines.

Styles and honours

Master Sebastian Coe (1956–1960)

Mr Sebastian Coe (1960–1982)

Mr Sebastian Coe MBE (1982–1990)

Mr Sebastian Coe OBE (1990–1992)

Mr Sebastian Coe OBE MP (1992–1997)

Mr Sebastian Coe OBE (1997–2000)

The Rt. Hon. The Lord Coe OBE (2000–2006)

The Rt. Hon. The Lord Coe KBE (2006–)

See also

Middle distance track event

References

External links

BBC Panorama: Fifa and Coe

Sebastian Coe's foreword to 'Running the Race', biography of Olympic champion Eric Liddell ISBN 9780852346655

Sebastian Coe's entries on the official blog of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games

Sebastian Coe Profile: Made In Sheffield

Guardian profile of Sebastian Coe

Article by Sebastian Coe about his amazing rise to fame in 1979, The Daily Telegraph, 11 August 2009, Accessed 11 August 2009.

Sebastian Coe has revamped London's bid for the 2012 Olympics

Sebastian Coe promises Olympics to remember

Sebastian Coe greatest race: the 2012 Olympics

Why London won the games: The Sebastian Coe factor

Coe Pays Tribute To Lord Stratford

Students interview Sebastian Coe

Sebastian Coe's Biography

England Athletics Hall of Fame citation

Alberto Juantorena|title=Men's 800 metres World Record Holder|years=1979-07-05 – 1997-07-07|after= Wilson Kipketer}} Filbert Bayi|title=Men's 1500 m World Record Holder|years=15 August 1979 – 27 August 1980|after= Steve Ovett}} John Walker|title=Men's Mile World Record Holder|years=17 July 1979 – 1 July 1980|after= Steve Ovett}} Steve Ovett|title=Men's Mile World Record Holder|years=19 August 1981 – 26 August 1981|after= Steve Ovett}} Steve Ovett|title=Men's Mile World Record Holder|years=28 August 1981 – 27 July 1985|after= Steve Cram}} Marcello Fiasconaro|title=European Record Holder Men's 800 m|years=5 July 1979 - 6 July 1997|after= Wilson Kipketer}} Jean Wadoux|title=European Record Holder Men's 1500 m|years=17 July 1979 - 26 August 1980|after= Steve Ovett}} Steve Ovett |after= Robin Cousins|years=1979}} Henry Rono|after= Edwin Moses|years=1979}} Edwin Moses|after= Carl Lewis|years=1981}} Liu Qi|after= Carlos Arthur Nuzman|years=Games of the XXX Olympiad|2012}}

Category:2012 Summer Olympics Category:Alumni of Loughborough University Category:People educated at Tapton School Category:Anglo-Indian people Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1980 Summer Olympics Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1984 Summer Olympics Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1986 Commonwealth Games Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1990 Commonwealth Games Category:BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners Category:British athlete-politicians Category:Commonwealth Games competitors for England Category:Conservative Party (UK) MPs Category:Conservative Party (UK) life peers Category:English middle distance runners Category:Former world record holders in athletics (track and field) Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire Category:Living people Category:British judoka Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall Category:Olympic athletes of Great Britain Category:Olympic gold medalists for Great Britain Category:Olympic silver medalists for Great Britain Category:People from Chiswick Category:English people of Indian descent Category:Sheffield Legends Category:Sport in Sheffield Category:Sports players and officials awarded knighthoods Category:UK MPs 1992–1997 Category:1956 births Category:Sportspeople from London Category:Olympic medalists in athletics (track and field) Category:English people of Jamaican descent

ca:Sebastian Newbold Coe cs:Sebastian Coe da:Sebastian Coe de:Sebastian Coe eo:Sebastian Coe es:Sebastian Coe et:Sebastian Coe eu:Sebastian Coe fi:Sebastian Coe fr:Sebastian Coe gl:Sebastian Coe he:סבסטיאן קו hr:Sebastian Coe io:Sebastian Coe it:Sebastian Coe ja:セバスチャン・コー nl:Sebastian Coe no:Sebastian Coe pl:Sebastian Coe pt:Sebastian Coe ru:Коу, Себастьян simple:Sebastian Coe sv:Sebastian Coe tr:Sebastian Coe uk:Себастьян Коу zh:塞巴斯蒂安·柯伊

Coordinates	32°13′0″N76°19′0″N
Name	Jennifer Simpson
Country
Event	Steeplechase, 1500 m, 3000 m, 5000 m
Alias	Jenny Simpson
Residence	Oviedo, Fl / Boulder, CO
Coach	Juli Benson
Collegeteam	Colorado Buffaloes
Birth name	Jennifer Mae Barringer
Birth date	August 23, 1986
Birth place	Webster City, Iowa
Height
Weight
Turnedpro	2010
Pb	800 m: 2:01.20 1500 m: 3:59.90 Mile: 4:25.91 i 3000 m: 8:42.03 i 5000 m: 15:01.70 Steeplechase: 9:12.50
Olympics	2008, Steeplechase, 9th
Medaltemplates	}}

}} Jennifer Simpson (née Barringer) (born August 23, 1986) is an American middle distance runner and steeplechaser. She represented the United States at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Simpson holds the American record in the Steeplechase with a time of 9:12.50. She won a gold medal in the 1500 meters at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics.

High school

As a student at Oviedo High School, Simpson was a 5-time state champion in track and 3-time state champion in cross country. She also set Florida high school records in the mile, two-mile, 5000 m, and three-mile.

2008

At the time of her 2008 Olympic appearance, Simpson was enrolled at the University of Colorado. At the U.S. trials, Simpson qualified for the United States Olympic team by finishing third in the steeplechase.

Simpson qualified for the first women's steeplechase final in Olympic history by finishing third in her heat. She set a new American record of 9:22.26 in the final and placed ninth.

2009

In 2009, she set NCAA records in the mile, 3000 m, and 5000 m indoors, 1500 m, 3000 m steeplechase and 5000 m outdoors. She also topped her own American record in the Steeplechase at the 2009 World Championships with a time of 9:12:50, finishing 5th overall.

While primarily a steeplechaser, she ran 3:59.90 in the 1500 m at the 2009 Prefontaine Classic. At the time of the event, this performance made her the third-fastest female 1500 m runner in U.S. track and field history.

Simpson came fifth at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics, running a North American record time of 9:12.50 minutes for the event. It is also the best mark by any athlete from the Americas. She was the 2009 US Champion in the steeplechase.

Despite the fact that she could have signed a professional contract, Simpson returned to school in the fall of 2009 to compete in Cross Country. On October 31, 2009, Simpson captured the Big 12 individual title, running a 6-kilometer course in 20 minutes, 27.46 seconds. She was favored to win the NCAA Cross Country Championship on November 23, 2009, but collapsed after leading for the first two miles. She wound up in 163rd place. Simpson commented that she felt light headed all of a sudden.

Simpson won the Inaugural Bowerman Award in 2009. The Bowerman award is given to college track's Athlete of the Year.

2010

In January 2010, Simpson signed a multi-year endorsement deal with New Balance. Simpson later changed coaches from her University of Colorado at Boulder coach, Mark Wetmore, in favor of the Air Force Academy coach Julie Henner.

Simpson missed most of the 2010 season due to a stress reaction in her right femur. She married on October 18, 2010.

2011

Simpson began the 2011 season strong, winning the Mile and 3000 meters championships at the 2011 USA Indoor Track and Field Championships. She qualified for the 2011 World Championships in Athletics by finishing second in the 1500 meters at the US Track and Field Championship.

Simpson won a gold medal at the 1500 meters at the World Championships in a time of 4:05:40. She beat rivals Hannah England and Natalia Rodriguez. Simpson's gold medal was considered a surprise.

References

External links

USA Track & Field: Jennifer Barringer

NBC Olympics Profile

Queen Harrison|years=2009}}

Category:1986 births Category:Living people Category:American middle distance runners Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Olympics Category:Olympic track and field athletes of the United States Category:People from Hamilton County, Iowa Category:People from Seminole County, Florida Category:University of Colorado at Boulder alumni

de:Jennifer Barringer Simpson fr:Jennifer Simpson pl:Jennifer Simpson sv:Jennifer Barringer